Discover the amazing health benefits of Phaseolus vulgaris, a versatile plant that is rich in protein, fiber, vitamins, and minerals. Incorporate it into your diet for improved health and well-being.

Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) . The bean belongs to the legume family or Fabaceae , from which edible plants such as chickpeas , peas , lentils , peanuts and jicama , among others, come from. It is a plant native to America that is cultivated throughout the world. There are many varieties and both the green pods (green beans or chauchas) and the dried grains are consumed.

Historical background

Before the arrival of the Spanish in America , there were no famines like in Europe , because in America, the practice of polyculture was common, where corn and beans were planted. Beans together with corn form the chain that generates essential proteins for humans to be well nourished. In our country, this legume plays an important role, since in the fields, the combination of corn and bean cultivation is necessary; this method of cultivation serves to give the fields a rest, since the grass absorbs nitrogen and the legume, in turn, provides it.

Edelmira Linares, a biologist at the Botanical Garden of the Biology Institute of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM), points out that the common bean seed is rich in dietary fiber and also has a high iron content , in addition to having twice as much protein as cereals such as oats and wheat . Ana María Carrillo explains in the text, La Cocina del Tomato, Frijol y Calabaza , by Editorial Clío, that for other cultures the bean has a soul called “the lord of the bean.” A myth tells that the god of the bean suffers because he is black, and assures that men do not love him because of his color. It is a lament of this divinity that reproaches men for their ingratitude, with the forces of Nature .

Bean varieties

Grain legumes, which include beans, have become a very dynamic sector in the Cuban export sector, and as a result, this crop represents an important production alternative for thousands of farmers in the Coast, Sierra and Jungle; however, a series of limitations resulting from the scarce use of adequate technologies mean that the exceptional agro-climatic conditions offered by the Coast and other production areas are not efficiently used. This crop has many reasons for its economic, ecological and medical importance, among which are:

• It is grown on the coast, in the mountains and in the jungle.
• They are very important in the basic family basket due to their high content of proteins, carbohydrates and minerals.
• It improves soils by incorporating atmospheric nitrogen fixed by symbiosis with bacteria of the Rhizobiumgenus .
• Grains contain proteins (22% – 28%), vitamins , minerals and soluble fibers (pectins); which have effects in the prevention of heart diseases, obesity and digestive tract. That is why important medical institutions worldwide have been promoting consumption, turning it into a commercially attractive product.

The wide adaptability of some varieties facilitates production throughout the year, making it possible to take advantage of commercial windows with better prices.

• In the foreign market, trade is based on commercial classes, subject to quality standards. Peru mainly exports castilla beans or cowpeas, pole beans and pallars to more than 35 countries, for a value of 12 million dollars annually. With the introduction of new varieties of common beans, loctao beans and other species, it is expected to increase exports and expand them to other countries.

Origin of the bean

The Phaseolus vulgaris species or common bean is native to the Mexico – Guatemala area since in these countries there is a great diversity of varieties both in the wild and in cultivated form.

Nutritional value

Its high iron content, a vital element for good brain development in children, helps correct biliary disorders, gout, rheumatic diseases, lowers cholesterol and is effective against anemia. For every 100 grams, there are 20 grams of protein, 5.8 grams of fat and more than 3 grams of fiber. The bean is a legume that is a rich source of protein and carbohydrates, and is also rich in B vitamins, such as niacin, riboflavin, folic acid and thiamine; it also provides iron, copper, zinc, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and calcium, and has a high fiber content.

General characteristics of the crop

Beans : Common name applied broadly to various plants of American origin from the legume family. The seeds and pods of these plants are used as food and in the production of fodder. The name of the plant also designates the seed known in the different Spanish-speaking countries by the name of bean, bean, poroto, caraota, Habichuela and others. It is a highly appreciated food for its high protein content. Almost all the varieties cultivated in Europe , the United States and Mexico are species and varieties of the Phaseolus genus. This genus includes a large number of species that include annual, perennial, erect and climbing herbs.

Phases and stages of development in the bean plant.

The development of bean crops has two phases: vegetative and reproductive. The first phase covers the period from seed germination to the beginning of flowering, and the second extends from flowering to harvest maturity.

• Vegetative phase: It begins when the seed is provided with the conditions to begin germination and ends when the first flower buds appear in varieties with a determinate growth habit, or the first clusters in varieties with an indeterminate growth habit.
• Reproductive phase: it is found between the moment of the appearance of the flower buds or bunches and the maturity of the harvest.

Castilla Bean : The Castilla bean is also known as Cowpi or ” Chinese bean .” This quick-cooking legume and natural source of selenium originates in Africa . Additionally, it has the advantage of being easy to digest. Benefits: Its notable effects include strengthening the spleen in the process of eliminating water and toxins from the body, alleviating excess heat in the body, and it is recommended as a supplement in the treatment of diabetes. Nutritional Specifications: ½ cup contains 110 calories, 7 grams of protein, 0 grams of fat, 18 grams of carbohydrates, and 6 grams of fiber.

Pole bean : It is a member of the Cajanus Cajan family , cream or light gray in color, mottled, speckled or marbled with gray. The cultivation of this bean dates back at least 3000 years. It has extensive nutritional benefits because it contains high levels of protein and amino acids such as methionine, lysine, and tryptophan. In combination with cereals, pole beans constitute a completely balanced meal. Nutritional Specifications: ½ cup contains 352 calories, 22.3 grams of protein, 0 cholesterol, 1.6 fat, 17.5 mg sodium, 64.4 grams of carbohydrates and 15.4 grams of fiber.

Canary Bean : Also known as “Peruano” or “Mayocoba”. This sulfur-yellow bean is produced throughout the coast and inter-Andean valleys of Peru , Mexico and, in the last decade, in the United States. The Canary Bean is the king of beans for its texture and flavor, and is preferred by most demanding Latin chefs.

Red Kidney : It is a kidney bean, it belongs to a family of large legumes including pinto beans, ball beans, mung beans and large northern varieties. It has the advantage of keeping its shape once cooked. Some of the benefits are: It serves as a diuretic, used in the treatment of swelling due to edema. Nutritional factors: ½ cup contains 110 calories, 8 grams of protein, 0 grams of fat, 20 grams of carbohydrates, 0 mg of sodium and 6 grams of fiber.

Diseases

• Rhizoctonia solani: Foot rot
• Uromyces phaseoli: Bean rust
• Fusarium solani: Dry root rot
• Colletotrichum lindemuthianum: Anthracnose
• Xanthomonas campestri: Bacterial blight of common bean, or common blast

Relevance of environmental factors for production

The coast offers the agro-climatic conditions necessary for the development of this crop. As already mentioned, the wide adaptability of some varieties facilitates production throughout the year, which is useful. However, the optimal temperatures for the development of grain legumes fluctuate between 18º C and 27º C. Beans, pigeon peas, zarandaja, pallar and chickpeas require cool temperatures for flower setting; on the other hand, crops such as cowpea, loctao and adzuki, develop better at slightly warm temperatures between 25º C and 30º C.

Worldwide distribution

There are 180 species of the Phaseolus genus, of which approximately 126 come from the American continent, 54 from South Asia and East Africa, 2 from Australia and only 1 from Europe . In Latin America, it is one of the basic foods and is appreciated by all social groups, forming part of numerous typical dishes of great consumption.

Genetic improvement

Currently in Mexico, with contributions from Central American countries, varieties are being developed that resist diseases since the varieties have become vulnerable to many phytopathogens, especially root rot and other viral pathogens. INIFAP, COLPOS, IPN, UACh and UAM are working together to make better varieties and hybrids for the national and international market.

Properties

Beans have a high protein and fiber content, and are also an excellent source of minerals. Their average nutritional content per 100 grams of raw food in net weight is as follows:

kcal 332 fiber 4.3 g moisture 7.9 g fat 1.8 g protein 19.2 g carbohydrates 61.5 g

Lipids

total fats 1.8 g cholesterol 0.0 mg total saturated 0.12 g monounsaturated (olecic) 0.06 g polyunsaturated (linoleic) g 0.18

Minerals

Calcium 228 mg Phosphorus 407 mg Iron 5.5 mg Magnesium 140 mg Sodium 24 mg Potassium 1406 mg Zinc 2.79 mg Fluoride (quantity not specified)

Vitamins

retinol 1.0 μg left-handed ascorbic acid 0.0 mg thiamine 0.62 mg riboflavin 0.14 mg niacin 1.7 mg pyridoxine 0.4 mg folic acid 394 μg cobalamin 0.0 μg

Amino acids

isoleucine 927 mg leucine 1685 mg lysine 1593 mg methionine 234 mg phenylalanine 1154 mg threonine 878 mg tryptophan 223 mg valine 1016 mg arginine 1257 mg histidine 627 mg

Chemical compounds in the testa

The bean testa has various components, including fiber and several phenolic compounds that exhibit antioxidant activity and that play a protective role against oxidative damage caused by external agents. However, studies on the effects of bean extracts on living cells are still scarce. Anthocyanins belong to the group of phenolic compounds, particularly flavonoids, which are characterized by their solubility in water and their bright colors. They are found in beans with red, pink and black testa, and contribute to determining their different colors. Anthocyanins have a great antioxidant activity that inhibits free radicals, preventing diseases.

Microorganisms associated with bean cultivation

Among the great diversity of microorganisms present in nature, those microorganisms that are linked to or interacting with plants are of particular interest due to their potential for use in biotechnology, but also due to their importance in clarifying their relationship with the plant with which they interact. In recent years, there has been great interest worldwide in the study of plant-microorganism interactions, fundamentally aimed at generating new basic knowledge applicable to production systems (Cerda, 2008).

Bacteria

Diazotrophic capacity is limited to Bacteria and Archaea, which includes cyanobacteria and Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. All organisms that reduce N2 to NH4+ possess a complex enzyme called nitrogenase. However, only a small proportion of known species can do so. About 87 species in two genera of Archaea, 38 genera of bacteria, and 20 genera of cyanobacteria have been identified as diazotrophs, or organisms that can fix atmospheric N2. (Moreira and Siqueira, 2006)

Rhizobia

In the relationship between beans and Rhizobium there is specificity and differences in infectivity, both intra- and interspecific, and the genotype of the bean varieties determines the effectiveness of the Rhizobium strains. Plant-rhizobium interactions begin with the exchange of molecular signals between the two participants. Legumes exude flavonoid compounds in different relative concentrations which depend on the nature of the inoculating bacteria (Diaga et al., 2003).
The exchange of signals between Rhizobium cells and legumes involves several stages. First, the growth of bacteria in the rhizosphere of the host, the induction of rhizobia nodulation genes by plant exudates, the production of nodulation factors, the adhesion of microbial cells to the root, the induction of cell division in the plant, followed by the penetration of the microsymbiont, until the formation of the symbiosome and its functioning within the nodule. Legumes excrete secondary metabolites into the rhizosphere, among which flavonoids and charcones are the most important in this interaction. Depending on the plant and the bacteria, specific compounds of these will serve as inducing signals of the nod genes through the Nod D protein in Rhizobium (Napoles et al., 2007).
The nodulation process has two stages: the preinfection or chemotactic attraction of the bacteria by the plant followed by the induction of structural changes in the root hairs (Figure 1). When the bacteria approaches or comes into contact with the root it is going to infect, according to Nápoles et al. (2007), it secretes a lipopolysaccharide compound called the NOD factor that induces a series of deformations in the root hairs. López-Lara (2003) suggests that some root hairs curl up to 360° forming a structure called the “shepherd’s crook”.
Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF), particularly through rhizobia-legume interaction, plays a crucial role in increasing the sustainability of agro-ecosystems and agricultural yields of grain legumes, with a minimum of inputs from non-renewable sources (Vance, 2001).

Filamentous fungi

Soil fungi constitute an important group of microorganisms, including the species Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goides and Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc., which cause major damage to numerous crops, including the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) (Castellanos et al., 2005).

Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goides

It is a soil-borne phytopathogen that infects more than 500 plant species and has a wide geographic distribution. This pathogen is highly variable, with isolates that differ in the diameter of the microsclerotia as well as in the presence or absence of pycnidia. The microsclerotia of M. phaseolina remain in the soil and in the debris of infected plants and serve as the primary source of inoculum. It has been found that they can persist in the soil for at least three years. Seeds can also spread the fungus in the seed coat; when infected, they do not germinate or the seedlings die shortly after germination. The presence of Macrophomina phaseolina in seeds is the cause of the disqualification of legumes as plant propagation material. During the years 2009 and 2010, 120 quintals of Phaseolus vulgaris were disqualified as seeds in the province of Villa Clara due to the presence of M. phaseolina. The inefficiency of controlling this pathogen in the plantation makes it essential to eradicate it from the seed prior to sowing (Cardona, 2006).

Sclerotium rolfsii (Sacc)

Since 1892, when Rolfs first reported and described Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. in southern Florida, causing the disease known as Southern Blight in tomato crops (Solanum esculentum Mill.), many studies have been carried out on this important species. Despite this, the organism continues to cause problems in numerous crops, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions (Castellanos, 2011). The fungus attacks seedlings in seedbeds during seed germination or later, causing lesions at the base of the hypocotyl of the seedlings, characterized by sinking, softening and discoloration of the bark, right at the soil line, where a dark spot appears at the base of the stem, which increases until a ring forms around it. When it reaches this phase, the plant is so weakened at the base of the stem that it ends up falling. The symptoms of the aerial part are: chlorosis, slow defoliation and permanent wilting (Castellanos, 2011). In the underground parts the infection also progresses and causes separation of the bark from the root tissues (González, 1988). On the affected stems a layer of extramatrical mycelium forms, within which the fungus sclerotia are formed, small in size, 859 µm round and 852-976 µm ovoid, initially white and later dark brown (Mayea and Padrón, 1983). The methods of fighting diseases transmitted by seeds are different from those used against other foliar and soil pathogens. In this case it is essential to disinfect them before sowing because they can constitute the beginning of epiphytes. The problem of the indiscriminate use of chemical products, such as methyl bromide, can be summarized as fungal resistance, environmental contamination and toxicity, which has motivated the search for other effective and non-harmful methods to combat plant pathogens (Cuthbertson and Murchie, 2005). Biological control is one of the alternatives used to ensure that seeds are free of fungal pathogens at the time of sowing (Javaid and Saddique, 2011).

Harvest

They can be consumed fresh or dried if they are allowed to mature on the plant, then the plant is removed and they are left to dry completely by hanging them upside down in a cool, dry place. The edible product is the dried grain of this plant, which is preserved for a long time in closed containers and in places without humidity. Once the bean has been selected (removing the ruined beans) and cleaned (removing stones and dirt), it is washed with running water and the water is discarded to eliminate impurities and become increasingly cleaner.

After this, they are soaked overnight in bicarbonate (one teaspoon per kilogram of beans). The next morning, all the water is poured out and they are soaked in pure water for 10 minutes again, and then the water is emptied. In some cases, rainwater is used for soaking and later cooking.

Gastronomy

In many countries in America these grains are an essential dish and are cooked in various ways:

• In Venezuela , they are called caraotasand are part of the country’s most traditional dish that is consumed throughout the year, known as “pabellón criollo”: it includes white rice, stewed beef (skirt cut) and fried tajadas (ripe plantain). They are also prepared in soups with pork or chicken. These dishes vary according to the regions, in some they add sugar. A curious fact is that in the east of this nation, especially in the state of Sucre, caraotas are stewed and served with grated cheese as a filling for arepas and empanadas. This last combination is colloquially known as dominoes due to the contrast between the black color of the grains and the white of the cheese. It should be noted that in the state of Lara they are popularly called carotas (it is said that this is where the name of the famous musical group “Carota, Ñema y Tajá” came from). The rest of the varieties are generally used to prepare soups, stews or other dishes such as the so-called palo a pique , which is prepared with beans of the “boca de santo” or “cabecita negra” type (they are smaller than the black, red and white varieties).
• In Mexico , El Salvador , Guatemala and Honduras , where they are called beans, they are consumed cooked, commonly called “de la olla”, mashed and traditionally fried with pork fat, or with corn oil after having been boiled and they are known as ” refried beans ” and are generally consumed accompanied by corn tortillas . There are also other variants such as ” charro beans “, “pork beans”, ” enfrijoladas “, bean soup, beans with chorizo, etc.
• In Honduras they are consumed as: baleadas , with wheat tortilla, corn, in cardán soup , which is bean soup with pork rinds and bananas and coconut milk, fried; this variant with pork ribs, cooked at any time and meal time, is the main accompaniment for each main dish.
• In Cuba, they are known as beansand dried legumes are consumed in stews made with vegetables and aromatic spices, always accompanied by rice. When the red variety is accompanied with rice, it is called “congrí” and in the case of the black variety, it is called “moros con cristianas”.
• In the Dominican Republic it is known as habichuela and is an essential part of the gastronomy, since almost all varieties are grown and it is consumed in different ways, it can be found in the typical dish known as “la bandera” which consists of white rice with beans (commonly red or pinto) and stewed chicken meat, there is also “moro” which is the result of mixing white rice with any variety of bean. A typical dessert is “habichuelas con dulce” which consists of blending and straining the red variety of this species, adding different ingredients such as evaporated or coconut milk, sugar, cinnamon, salt, raisins, sweet potato and milk cookies. It is very popular during Lent .
• In many countries in the Americas, it is common to mix rice with beans. In Nicaragua and Costa Rica it is called ” gallo pinto ” and in El Salvador and Honduras it is called “casamiento”. In the Dominican Republic and Cuba this typical dish is known as “arroz moro” and consists of black beans with white rice accompanied by stewed meat. In some regions of Cuba this typical dish is also called “congrí”. Some people believe that this name comes from the French CongRiz(or arroz congo), since that is what the French emigrants who came from Haiti to eastern Cuba called this dish. Other versions claim that it comes from the English concrete and means ‘concrete’, because the Americans who came to the island considered the beans to be too hard.
• In Peru there is a dish that is a mixture of rice and beans, and it is known by the name of « tacu tacu » (from taka-taka: to hit in Quechua), but which traditionally (original recipe from the old people of Lima) is rice with beans that are left over from the previous day and sprinkled with oregano. Beans are also prepared as a sweet called « frejol colado », which is consumed as a filling in some Chinese snacks or simply as a dessert. Beans are also used in soups such as « menestrón » and « shambar » or prepared in stews such as « frejolada ». Porotos soup is a traditional dish from the southern city of Tacna.
• In the Guaraní communities of Bolivia (especially in the captaincy of Alto Parapetí ) and in Paraguay , a dish called “cumanda” is consumed, which consists of cooking the seeds and, after grinding them, mixing them with legumes. It is given a breaded shape, suitable for eating cooked, fried or baked. Flans , soft drinks and breads are also prepared with its flour.
• In Chile , where they are known as porotos, they are part of the typical food , such as ” porotos con riendas” (beans with reins ); which are dried beans, prepared with wheat pasta (usually noodles ). Other examples are “porotos con chuchoca ” (beans with potatoes) (consumed in the rural world); or also with wheat mote (and consumed mainly in the center of the country). With the fresh variety, “porotos granados” are prepared, which are tender beans, cooked with shelled and ground corn kernels, squash and basil.
• In Colombia they are known as beansor grains , and are a fundamental part of the cuisine of the Caribbean Coast and Antioquia . On the Caribbean Coast, zaragozas (a variety of red bean), peas , black-headed beans, lentils , popcorn , caraotas or black zaragozas and varieties of red beans are prepared in stews, and they are eaten accompanied by some meat and rice basically, and it is very common to also add fried slices of ripe plantain. They are also prepared in soups (zaragozas, pea, black-headed bean, lentil, guandú ), in rice (black-headed bean, lentil, guandú) and in sweets (guandú). In Antioquia , red beans are a fundamental component of the bandeja paisa and of beans with garra ( bacon ), patica or pig’s hoof. Other grains include popcorn, caraota and varieties of red beans such as cargamanto.
• In Ecuador it is known as frejolor poroto , and its most common preparation is to cook it until it begins to lose its shape (the grains mix and form a stew), which is called menestra (it can also be made with lentils, peas, etc.). It is very common to serve it with rice and beef, pork or fish.
• In Spain, dried legumes are consumed in a multitude of stews and cooked dishes , sometimes in the form of a salad : bean salad . Some of the dishes can be such as the cocido montañés , fabada , the bean stew from Saldaña , Tolosa beans or beans with clams . They are also prepared with rice, in the dish called ” Moors and Christians ” or “marriage”. Famous is the arròs amb fesols i naps(typical dish of Valencia ), which is a rich stew made of white beans (which the Valencians call fesols ), potato and turnip . Also originally from Catalonia is ” Seques amb botifarra ” (white beans with sausage), a typical dish of this community. In Ávila, typical dishes are beans with chorizo ​​and those from El Barco de Ávila . The judiones from La Granja ( Segovia ) are also very well known.
• In Argentina, locro is cooked , a stew with pre-Hispanic origins that is prepared with products such as beans, squash and corn . Being a food with many calories and nutrients, locro is very suitable for consumption during the winter or in cold areas. Traditionally, it is consumed en masse on May 1, Labor Day, and on May 25 , the day that commemorates the formation of the first national government . For this reason, it is a regional and traditional dish to celebrate national holidays.
• In Brazil, Feijoada is considered the national dish, and is also very popular in Portugal . It is prepared with beans and pork, and is usually accompanied by rice, fried manioc and oranges. Other typical dishes are acarajé , feijão tropeiro, tutu de feijão , etc.